IIC blockchain

1. The second floor is right. I'm studying economics.
you've got a wrong concept. General equivalent goods and currency are different concepts. Their scope is different. RMB is currency but not general equivalent. I suggest you take a good look at Marxist political economy

2. < On the wealth of Nations & gt; The fourth chapter discusses the origin of money and its utility

once the division of labor is fully established, a person's own proction can only satisfy a small part of his desire. Most of his desires must be satisfied with the surplus labor procts that he cannot consume in exchange for the surplus labor procts that he needs from others. Therefore, all people have to rely on exchange to live, or, to a certain extent, all people have become businessmen, and society itself, strictly speaking, has also become a commercial society
however, at the beginning of the division of labor, the role of this exchange force is often extremely insensitive. Suppose that a holds a certain commodity and cannot consume it by himself, while B does not own enough of it. At this time, of course, a is willing to sell and B is willing to buy part of the remaining items in a's hands. However, if B does not hold the desired items in a's hands, the transaction between them still cannot be realized. For example, when a butcher puts meat that he can't consume in his shop, the brewer and the baker are willing to buy what they need. But at this time, suppose they have no other goods to trade except their own procts, and the wheat wine and bread that the butcher needs have been supplied. Then, there is no possibility for them to trade with each other. A butcher cannot be a merchant of a winemaker or a baker, and neither can a winemaker or a baker be a customer of a butcher. In this way, they can't help each other. However, since the establishment of the division of labor, in order to avoid this inconvenience, the thoughtful people in various times and societies have a certain amount of goods beside them at any time except their own labor procts. When they want to come, they will not refuse to exchange with anyone's procts
there are many kinds of things that people have thought of and used for this purpose. In uncivilized society, it is said that livestock was once used as a general commercial medium. Livestock is undoubtedly a very inconvenient medium, but we find that in ancient times, the number of livestock was often used as the evaluation standard of exchange, that is, livestock was used to exchange various goods. Homer once said: the armor of Diomedes is only worth nine cattle, while the armor of grocas is worth 100 cattle. It is said that Abyssinia used salt as the medium of commercial transformation; In some places along the coast of India, some kind of shell is used as a medium; Virginia uses tobacco; Newfoundland dried diced fish; China's West Indian colonies used granulated sugar; Some other countries use animal skins or tanned skins. As far as I know, there is still a village in Scotland that uses nails as a medium to buy ale and bread
however, in any country, for various irresistible reasons, it seems that people have finally decided to use metal instead of other goods as media. Metal is not easy to wear. That's no shame compared with any other goods. Moreover, it not only has great rability, but also can be arbitrarily divided without any loss, and can be re fused into the original shape after being divided. This nature is not found in all other rable goods. This characteristic of metal makes it a suitable medium for commercial circulation. For example, suppose that there is no other kind of goods except livestock to exchange for salt. The value of a person who wants to buy salt at one time must be equal to that of a whole cow or a whole sheep. The value he buys can't be lower than this limit, because the goods he uses to buy salt can't be divided. If they are divided, they can't be restored. If he wants to buy more salt, he can only buy twice or more than three times the quantity of salt from two or three cattle or sheep for the same reason. On the contrary, if the goods he deals with are not livestock but metal, his problem will be easily solved. He can only divide a considerable amount of metal according to his current needs to buy goods of equal value
different countries use different metals for this purpose. The ancient Spartans used iron, the ancient Romans used copper, but the people of all the rich commercial countries used gold and silver. At first, the metal used as the medium of exchange seems to be thick strip without any mark or casting. Pliny quoted the ancient historian timias as saying: until the time of sevias tulias, the Romans did not have any coins. They used copper bars without engraving when they bought what they needed. In other words, these thick bars were the things used as currency at that time
in such a crude situation, there are two kinds of great inconveniences in the use of metal. The first is the trouble of weighing; The second is the trouble of testing. If there is a little difference in the weight of precious metals, there will be a big difference in the value. But in order to weigh this kind of metal correctly, it is necessary to have at least a very precise code and balance. The weighing of gold, especially a fine operation. It is true that the base metal weighing is a little worse, and it will not have a great impact on the value. Therefore, there is no need to weigh carefully. But if a poor person buys and sells goods worth one copper plate, he also needs to weigh the copper plate each time, which is very troublesome. The work of testing metals is even more difficult and tedious. If a part of the metal is not put in the crucible and melted with proper flux, the test results will be very unreliable. Before the coinage system was put into effect, it was easy to be deceived unless it passed such a difficult and tedious test. What they get from selling goods may be like a pound of pure silver or pure copper on the surface, but they are mixed with many of the worst and lowest metals. Therefore, in order to avoid this kind of harm, facilitate trade, and promote the development of various instries and instries, progressive countries consider it necessary to affix a public seal on a certain amount of specific metal usually used to purchase goods. So there was the coinage system and the government called the mint. The nature of this system is similar to that of the prosecutor of linen and woollen cloth. The task of these inspectors is to determine the weight and quality of various commodities on the market by affixing public seals
it seems that the purpose of the initial public seal on the metal of currency is to determine the quality or purity of the metal that must be determined but is most difficult to determine. The engraving at that time was very similar to the purity marks on silver vessels and bars today. Similar to this is the Spanish mark engraved on a gold nugget but attached only to one side of the metal without covering it. What it determines is only the purity of the metal, not the weight of the metal. It is said that Abraham weighed four hundred shekels of silver to Ephron as the price of Mark's field. It is said that shekel was the currency circulated by merchants at that time. However, at that time, the circulation of metal money, like the giving and receiving of gold and silver bars today, was only about weight, regardless of the number. In ancient times, when the Saxons came to power in England, they were said to collect not money, but food. The habit of paying with money was first founded by William the conqueror. However, for a long time, the money put into the National Treasury was collected by weight rather than by number
it is very troublesome and difficult to weigh metals without error. This led to the coinage system. The engraving of coins covers not only the two sides of the metal block, but also its edge sometimes. This kind of engraving, not only to determine the purity of metal, but also to determine its weight. Since then, coins have been given and received in numbers, as they are now, without the trouble of weighing them
it seems that the names of those coins were intended to indicate the weight or quantity contained in them. The coinage of Rome began in the era of sevias tulias, when as or pondo contained a Roman pound of pure copper. As or Ponto, like our truvas, is divided into twelve ounces, each of which contains one ounce of pure copper. In the days of Edward I, a pound contained a pound of pure silver. A quarter pound seems to be more than a Roman pound and less than a Trojan pound. Truva pound was adopted by the British Mint in the 18th year of Henry VIII. Truva is a city in the province of Champaign in the northeast of France. At that time, people from all over Europe often went in and out of its market, so everyone was familiar with and respected the trade-offs used in this famous market. In Charlemagne's time, the Livre contained a Trojan pound of sterling silver. The Scotch pound, from Alexander I to the age of Bruce, contains a pound of silver of the same weight and purity as the British pound. The coins of England, France and Scotland all contained silver weighing one penny at first, that is, one twentieth of an ounce or one 240 of a pound. Shilling at first seemed to be the name of weight. Henry III's law at that time stipulated that when a quart of wheat was worth twenty shillings, a fine wheat bread worth a copper plate would weigh twelve shillings and four pence. However, the ratio of shillings to pence or shillings to pounds does not seem to be as stable as the ratio of pence to pounds. In ancient France, sou or shilling sometimes contained five pence, sometimes 12 pence, sometimes 20 or even 40 pence. In the ancient Saxon world, a shilling seemed to contain only five benthos at a certain time, and the change of its content was similar to that of its neighbor, namely, the Franks. Since the time of Charlemagne in France and the time of William the conqueror in England, the value of pound, shilling or penny has changed a lot, but the proportion between them seems to be the same as today. I believe that monarchs all over the world are greedy and unfair. They deceived their subjects and reced the true weight of the metal in the currency. In the later period of the Roman Republic, as in Rome was reced to one-quarter of the original price, and the content was only half an ounce. The pound and envoys of England are worth about one-third of what they were; Scotland's pounds and pence are about one-third of the original; French pounds and pence are about one fifty sixth of the original. By these means, the king and the state were able to pay off their debts and fulfill various contracts with a small amount of silver. In fact, the government's creditors are deprived of some of their rights. The government allowed all other debtors in the country to have the same privileges as the monarch, and they could also repay the amount borrowed before the currency was recast with the new devalued currency. Therefore, this kind of measure is often beneficial to the debtor but harmful to the creditor; Sometimes, this kind of measure has proced a revolution in personal property which is much bigger and more common than the public catastrophe can proce< However, money has become the common commercial medium of all civilized countries. Through this medium, all goods can be traded and exchanged
I'm going to talk about the rules that people follow when they exchange money for goods or only goods for goods. These rules determine the so-called relative value of goods and exchange value< It should be noted that the word value has two different meanings. It sometimes refers to the utility of a specific object, and sometimes refers to the purchasing power of other goods obtained by possession of something. The former can be called use value, and the latter can be called exchange value. Things of great use value often have little or no exchange value; On the contrary, the exchange of things of great value often has little or no use value